A brief history of sculpture

It might surprise you to hear that humans have been sculpting for more than 70,000 years! This makes a brief history of sculpture rather difficult to write, but we like a challenge! We hope that our not so brief history of sculpture helps you to appreciate how this form of artistic endeavour has evolved since prehistory.

Contents

Prehistoric Sculpture

The Blombos Ochre Plaque

Discovered in 1991 by Christopher Henshilwood in South Africa, the Blombos Ochre Plaque now resides in the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C. It is believed to date back to 75,000 BC and features simple engraving marks which the museum believes may represent information and not merely decoration. This simple piece lacks the visual impact of the Venus de Milo but it demonstrates that humans were creating three dimensional objects for aesthetic purposes sooner than you might have thought.

The Löwenmensch

Fast forward the small matter of 45,000 years to the middle of the Upper Paleolithic era and sculpture had progressed significantly. The Löwenmensch (Lion man) dates from this period and is the earliest known example of figurative art. The 30cm piece was recovered from a cave at Hohlenstein-Stadel in Germany. It depicts a human form with a feline face and was created before the invention of writing.

The Venus of Willendorf

Thought to date from 28,000 BC – 25,000 BC, the Venus of Willendorf is a diminutive limestone figurine which was found in Austria. Boasting an exaggerated body and no face, this sculpture is believed to be a fertility symbol. She is decidedly a human figure as opposed to the zoomorphic Löwenmensch and would have been crafted using sharp rocks. Chisels, were not yet available, nor were shops in which to buy them!

Ancient Egyptian sculpture

Forgive another huge leap in time but we have now arrived at 2,520BC! It was in then that work began on the iconic Great Sphinx in Egypt, a monumental piece which is 73m in length. The Great Sphinx is thought to represent pharaoh Khafre. But the sculpture depicts an idealised figure with a perfect body and face which is sitting rigidly and so is not a true portrait. Sculpture at that time was designed to promote the god like qualities of the kings and not reality.

We now move forward a mere 1,000 years to the reign of pharaoh Akhenaton. Sculpture from this period demonstrates that art was evolving at a much faster pace than previously. There had been a noticeable shift away from the rigid, block like figures of the past. Sculptures had become much more realistic

Ancient Greek sculpture

Early Greek sculpture resembled that of the blocky figures crafted by the Egyptians at the time of the Great Sphinx. But the artists of the early classical period began to move towards realism. The Kritios Boy of circa 480 BC is one of the most important works of the period. The subject isn't standing with both feet unnaturally facing forward but rather with his weight resting on one leg and the other leg bent. This position is known as contrapposto.

The High Classical period lasted only from about 450 to 400, but had an enormous influence on art. The work of this period retains a particular prestige, but few original pieces have survived. The best-known works are the Parthenon Marbles, crafted by a team led by the most famous ancient Greek sculptor Phidias. He was most celebrated for his colossal chryselephantine Statue of Zeus at Olympia, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The human figure was the principle subject of Ancient Greek sculpture. Subjects were usually male and nude. The bodies remained idealised but became far more natural during the Hellenistic period, from 400 BC. The impressive nature of the artistry in Greece attracted interest from Italy and later informed Roman art. This was important to our understanding of how sculpture developed as most of the great classical Greek works survive only in the form of Roman marble copies of the bronze originals. Bronze has always been a valuable metal and so most of the Greek sculptures were melted down.

Common people, women, children and animals eventually became acceptable subjects for sculpture in addition to the gods and rulers. The works were commissioned by wealthy families to adorn their homes and gardens. Sculptors enjoyed greater freedom and no longer needed to depict physical perfection.

The Venus de Milo

The Venus de Milo is an iconic piece which was crafted in Greece sometime between 130 BC and 100 BC, probably by Alexandros of Antioch. The graceful, larger than life marble statue depicts the goddess of love. She was discovered in 1820 on the island of Melos (Milos) and later donated to the Louvre in Paris. This sculpture is of huge significance as she demonstrates the new innovations of the late Hellenistic period. Her aloof demeanour reflects earlier classical pieces as does the rendering of her hair. However, the spiral composition, small breasts and positioning in three-dimensional space are very much of the 2nd century BC.

Roman sculpture

Much Roman sculpture has survived, unlike the Greek works in Bronze which were copied by the Romans. Portraiture dominated Roman freestanding sculpture and the artists were less prone to idealising their subjects than their Greek predecessors. The statues were more lifelike than those of Ancient Greece and Egypt. Surprisingly, they were often brightly coloured, but the pigment has been lost, leaving the bare stone pieces that we see today.

Portraiture dominated Roman art, perhaps because the Romans placed a huge emphasis on family and ancestors. They believed that it was a sign of great character not to gloss over any physical imperfections and for men to appear rugged. During the imperial era, however, the statues of emperors were idealised.

The Romans produced historical works in relief including the great Roman triumphal columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around them. The columns commemorating Trajan and Marcus Aurelius in Rome have survived to this day.

The arrival of Christianity

The Emperor Constantine brought Christianity to the Roman Empire in 325 AD. At this time, the subject matter of art began to change with Christian imagery replacing pagan gods and wealthy patrons.

The influence of Greek and Roman art

Greco-Roman sculpture greatly influenced Western art. It had explored the potential of realism and the durability of stone sculptures ensured that many pieces survived. These continued to influence artists across the globe. Classical art then gradually fell out of favour in Europe but would be rediscovered during the Italian Renaissance.

Early Medieval art

After Constantine brought Christianity to Europe, people needed to study the Bible, but many weren't literate. It was therefore important to create visual imagery to tell the stories. Books, doors and friezes featured relief sculptures, many carved from ivory. The word of the gospels was often depicted in bronze reliefs on church doors. These were cast using the lost wax technique. The Early Christians were opposed to monumental religious sculpture, although some Roman traditions were continued in the relief sculptures.

Byzantine, Carolingian and Ottonian art

Byzantine art never returned to monumental sculpture and was notable for stunning reliefs and smaller sculptures. In the West, during the Carolingian and Ottonian periods, larger works were produced for courts and churches. This trend spread and records suggest that there were life-sized pieces in Anglo-Saxon churches of the 10th and 11th centuries. Sadly, none of these have survived.

Below you can see The Bernward Doors made in the early 11th Century for Hildesheim Cathedral, Germany, during the Ottonian Renaissance period (919–1024). The reliefs on the doors feature Biblical scenes.

Romanesque Art

From around the year 1000, economic growth in Europe led to a rebirth in art. A new style of Romanesque art was seen throughout the continent with the new cathedrals being decorated with stone reliefs. Romanesque art was vigorous in character and dominated by high relief sculpture including capital columns carved with complete scenes. Objects in precious metals were highly prized at this time and metalwork became much more sophisticated.

Gothic Art

The Gothic era continued and expanded on the work of the early medieval period. Figures became more elaborate and the reliefs became higher with the figures now often being almost in the round. Some work showed an awareness of classical traditions. However, the Gothic period is essentially defined by the architecture. Art developed separately and so it isn't possible to precisely define a Gothic period in sculpture.

The Renaissance

During the Renaissance, artists became more interested in reviving Classical works and focussed particularly on classical myths rather than Biblical narratives. People were questioning Medieval life, especially the undermining of woman and the shunning of creative thinking. The period saw a great increase in the patronage of sculpture by the state and by the wealthy seeking pieces for their homes. Pubic monuments proliferated and religious sculpture was largely confined to church interiors. It was the era of the great masters Donatello, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo.

Michelangelo

Michelangelo Buonarroti was an active sculptor for only 20 years (1500 to 1520). His greatest masterpieces included his David, Pietà and Moses together with his pieces for the Tomb of Pope Julius II and Medici Chapel. His iconic David (1504) boasts a contrapposto pose inspired by classical sculpture. Unlike the previous representations of this subject, David is depicted before his battle with Goliath and not after the giant's defeat. He is not shown as victorious but rather as tense and preparing for battle.

In 1497, Michelangelo was commissioned to carve a Pietà (a sculpture of the Virgin Mary grieving over the body of Jesus). One of Michelangelo's most famous works, it was completed when he was just 24 years old. While sculptors were moving away from religious subjects, the church was a major patron of the arts and artists needed to make a living.

Baroque and Rococo sculpture

The Baroque era saw artists inspired by renaissance work but then running wild! Pieces were almost always in the round and boasted amazing drama. In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures gained new importance, and they boasted incredible movement and dynamism. Figures spiralled around a central vortex or reached outwards into spaces beyond. The pieces could be viewed from multiple angles and were created to be positioned in the centre of larger spaces. The era was notable for elaborate fountains including Bernini's Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi in Piazza Navona, Rome.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini was the most celebrated sculptor of the time. He was also an architect and boasted the vision to consider the setting in which his sculpture would be placed.

Rococo sculptures were smaller and a little more restrained. Porcelain replaced marble as the principle medium. It was a costly material and so the wealthy coveted porcelain pieces for their homes to highlight their social standing. The Rococo style lent itself to smaller sculptures. It was characterised by extensive ornamentation, scrolling curves and asymmetry. Chinese and Japanese motifs were used and the style was one of enormous grace.

The 19th And 20th Centuries

The art world experienced a seismic shift during the last two centuries. Like painters, sculptors moved towards impressionism and so their work focussed on expression and texture rather than anatomical detail. Artists attempted to capture fleeting moments of every-day life. Rodin's The Thinker is an iconic piece commissioned in 1880 which features a rough texture that is in stark contrast to the smooth surfaces of Bernini's works.

As sculpture moved towards modernism, greater attention was paid to the surfaces and the relationship between the art and the space it occupied. The psychological impact of a piece became more important than convincing physical details.

Modernism

Modernist sculpture encompassed many movements including Cubism, Geometric abstraction, De Stijl, Suprematism, Constructivism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism, Formalism Abstract expressionism, Pop-Art, Minimalism, Land art, and Installation art.

Post World War I, The Dada movement, of which Marcel Duchamp was a leading light, challenged the notion of what art really is. The movement, was a reaction to the war and rejected reason in favour of irrationality.

Pablo Picasso revolutionized sculpture as he created pieces which were fashioned from disparate objects and materials to produce what amounted to three dimensional collages. The work of Constantin Brâncuși at the beginning of the century had laid the foundations for abstract sculpture. He was rebelling against the naturalism of Rodin and reduced his pieces to their essence. His celebrated Birds in Space series featured simple, slender forms which communicated the elegance and flight of birds but they were without any details which identified the pieces as birds.

During the late 1950s and the 1960s, abstract sculptors began working with numerous new materials. They adopted a variety of approaches to their work. Sculptures included surrealist imagery, anthropomorphic and geometric abstraction and a variety different surfaces. Artists such as Isamu Noguchi, David Smith, Alexander Calder, Jean Tinguely, Richard Lippold, George Rickey, Louise Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson were the most celebrated exponants of modernist sculpture.

From the late 1960s through the 1970s, sculptors such as Leonard Baskin and George Segal produced figurative pieces in a classical style. Their work was in stark contrast to that of the modernist movements.

Contemporary Sculpture

Sculpture was to become an exploration of abstraction and environment. Site specific works including installations have dominated recent decades. Some feel that the results are strange, kitsch and incomprehensible. The works are known collectively as Post-Modernist but are difficult to define. Sculpture has challenged the limits of three-dimensional expression and crossed over into other forms of creativity. Damien Hirst exemplifies Post-Modernism. His controversial piece, The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living (a dead Tiger shark pickled in a tank of formaldehyde) shocks, confuses and mystifies. Is it sculpture? Is it an installation? Is Hirst an artist or a showman?

Sculpture across the ages

Humans have been crafting decorative objects for at least 75,000 years. As soon as people discovered tools, they began to use them to create practical items but also to express their creativity. Across the millenia, sculpture has evolved continuously, exploring new materials and ideas. Who knows what will happen next?